Special Higher Education Issue — March 8, 2002:
- Publisher's Note to this Issue
- ACE Finds Public Sees Higher Ed Role in New Economy
- AUTM Uncovers $1 Billion in Higher Education Royalties
- State Support Critical for Keeping Public Tuition Affordable, Study Finds
- College Board Reports Sharp Tuition Increases for 2001-2002
- NACUBO: Endowment Losses Fuel Further Pressure on Tuition
- Higher Ed Facing Further Budget Cuts in Many States
- Study Uncovers Trend Toward More Part-time Faculty
- Administration Requests Less for Most EPSCoR Programs
- Useful Stats: 2001 Digest of Educational Statistics
- University Tech Parks in the News
- Three Useful Stats Revisited
- Additional Reports and Resources
Copyright State Science & Technology Institute 2003. Information in this issue of the SSTI Weekly Digest was prepared under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic Development Administration. Redistribution to all others interested in tech-based economic development is strongly encouraged — please cite the State Science & Technology Institute whenever portions are reproduced or redirected. Any opinions expressed in the Digest do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
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Publisher's Note to this Issue
At almost every turn, the important roles played by universities and colleges in a knowledge-based economy seem to be validated. Industry and political leaders across the country are talking of the need for strong institutions of higher education, particularly public research universities, to improve national, state, and local competitiveness.
Whether it is the generation of new ideas or innovations or the development of a skilled workforce, higher education is a critical component of almost every high tech hot spot (see for example, Annalee Saxenian's analysis of Silicon Valley and Route 128, Regional Advantage, or the Milken Institute's report, America's High Tech Economy: Growth, Development, and Risks for Metropolitan Areas) or the most successful state and local tech-based economic development strategies.
Clearly, policymakers have grasped the important role of higher education in building tech-based economies. One need look no further than the number of initiatives that governors have proposed in their State of the State addresses over the last three years to see the important role they envision for universities. Most of the new spending and activity in tech-based economic development over the last five years has been focused on universities and colleges.
Yet, we have been struck in the last few months by the juxtaposition of the increased understanding of the importance of universities as a source of ideas and a skilled workforce with two disturbing trends: increased tuition and declining state support for higher education. At a time when there's increased demand for a skilled workforce in general and in science and engineering in particular, tuition increases in excess of 10 percent are not uncommon. For example, University of Iowa raised tuition 10 percent this year, the University of Minnesota 12 percent and the University of Tennessee 13 percent. Clemson raised tuition 25 percent this year while increases for the previous five years combined totaled less than 15 percent. Ohio State University is raising tuition for incoming freshmen 34 percent next fall. A recent report by the National Center for the Education Statistics, The Study of College Costs and Prices, 1988-89 to 1997-98, indicates that during that time period the level of state appropriations as a proportion of total revenue decreased for all types of public institutions. During that period, states were running record budget surpluses.
Given the importance of higher education to building tech-based economies and this odd juxtaposition, we thought a special issue focused on higher education was needed.
ACE Finds Public Sees Higher Ed Role in New Economy
The importance of attaining a higher education resonates with more than three-fourths of Americans today, according to the biennial survey Attitudes toward Public Higher Education, conducted by the American Council of Education. However, the survey points out most people are concerned that future state budget cuts could threaten the educational quality of institutions and limit the economic benefits they provide.
Key findings include:
- Nearly 90 percent of the 700 adults surveyed feel that it is "very important" (76 percent) or "fairly important" (13 percent) to have good public colleges and universities in order to have a well-trained workforce in a state. Other economic benefits of good public institutions cited include enabling states to be technologically competitive (85 percent); enhancing research and technology in a state (85 percent); and creating jobs (83 percent).
- Respondents also understand the direct connection between state budgets and the financial stability of public colleges and universities (76 percent ). They express "a great deal" of concern that cuts in state funding could result in a decline in the quality of education at institutions (77 percent), reduce financial aid (64 percent), or result in fewer classes and majors offered (52 percent).
- Sixty-nine percent of the respondents say that if their governor and legislature were looking for ways to cut state spending, they would oppose reducing funding for public colleges and universities.
The findings are backed up in part by Census Bureau statistics revealing the annual income for a person with a college degree is more than 80 percent higher than for a high school graduate: see: http://www.collegeboard.com/press/cost01/html/exhibit6.html
More information, including a link to the report can be found at: http://www.acenet.edu
AUTM Uncovers $1 Billion in Higher Education Royalties
More than $1.26 billion in royalties were collected by U.S. colleges and universities in FY 2000, according to the tenth annual licensing survey released by the Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM). In addition, the FY 2000 Annual AUTM Licensing Survey reported 347 new products were introduced to market and at least 454 spin-off companies were created by the institutions, where inventors filed for more than 8,500 U.S. patents.
Attesting to the localized economic development impact of strong university research, more than 80 percent of the start-up companies were located in the academic institution's home state or province.
Other survey highlights include:
- Two-thirds of the 4,346 new licenses/options in FY 2000 were granted to companies with fewer than 500 employees. Start-up businesses were launched to commercialize 626 of the licenses. New licenses rose 11 percent over 1999 survey results.
- Invention disclosures rose 6 percent from 1999 to a FY 2000 total of 13,032.
- Patent applications grew by 15 percent from the 1999 total of 5,545 to 6,375 in FY 2000. Patents issued rose 3 percent in FY 2000 to 3,764.
- FY 2002 saw academic institutions taking an equity interest in 372 deals, 53 percent more than the previous year. The institutions held equity interest in 56 percent of the 454 spin-offs created in FY 2000.
- Over the ten years AUTM has conducted the survey, nearly 3,400 new businesses have been launched from academic research results. One hundred eighty-four institutions reported 2,309 start-ups were still independent, operating businesses at the end of 2000. The number of license/options reporting income in FY 2000 rose 8 percent from 1999.
- Total adjusted gross license income was $1.26 billion in FY 2000, up 46 percent over FY 1999. The survey report points out much of the growth was a result of one-time payments.
To obtain a copy of AUTM Licensing Survey, FY 2000, contact AUTM at http://www.autm.net, call (847) 559-0846 or write to AUTM Headquarters, 60 Revere Drive, Suite 500, Northbrook, IL, 60062.
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State Support Critical for Keeping Public Tuition Affordable, Study Finds
A decline in state appropriations at four-year public institutions of higher education was the single most important factor associated with increases in tuition, according to a report released in February by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) within the U.S. Department of Education
The Study of College Costs and Prices, 1988-89 to 1997-98 shows that changes in tuition and fees — what colleges charge and the costs they incur to educate students — are related in only limited ways and that many factors have been causing the continued tuition increases at public and private institutions over and above inflation.
Mandated by Congress, the study used data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System to examine two main issues: the relationship between college prices (tuition the family and student pay) and costs (what the institution spends), and the relationship of federal and institutional aid to price increases.
Overall, from 1988-89 through 1997-98, tuition charges in both the public and private sectors rose faster than inflation. The study found that tuition increases at private institutions were related to factors such as providing more institutional financial aid to students and increases in faculty salaries, along with decreases in endowment revenue and private gifts.
Some findings among public institutions between 1988-89 and 1997-98 include:
- Among public bachelor's institutions, in-state undergraduate tuition and fees for full-year, full-time students increased each year by an average of 4.3 percent. The same measure for other public institutions — comprehensive, research/doctoral and 2-year institutions — was 4.2 percent, 4.1 percent and 3.4 percent, respectively.
- Meanwhile, the level of state appropriations as a proportion of total revenue decreased for all types of public institutions, including 11.3 percent for comprehensive, 9.8 percent for research/doctoral, 6.9 percent for bachelor's, and 3.2 percent for 2-year institutions.
- The level of state appropriations per full-time equivalent (FTE) student at public research/doctoral institutions decreased an average of $825 annually (1 percent), while tuition per FTE student increased an average of $1,682 (4.4 percent). The same measure for federal appropriations was a decrease of $50 annually (2.9 percent). On average, federal and state appropriations and tuition combined for 51.3 percent of these institutions' total revenues per FTE student per year.
- Federal and state appropriations at public research/doctoral institutions have decreased steadily as tuition has continued to increase. In 1988-89, the average level of state appropriations of total revenue at these institutions was 48.7 percent; these appropriations averaged less each year, hitting a low of 38.9 percent in 1997-98. Federal appropriations also declined from 1.1 percent in 1988-89 to 0.7 percent in 1997-98.
- Tuition, which registered 18.4 percent in 1988-89 according to the same measure, progressively averaged more each year, reaching 23.8 percent in 1997-98.
- 71.5 percent of first-time, full-time undergraduates at Bachelors-granting institutions received some type of financial aid, while 68.5 percent of similar students at research/doctoral institutions and 56.8 percent of community college students also received aid.
Given the limitations of the study, the relationship between tuition charges and increases in student financial aid could not be fully addressed. However, the study did find that increases in institutional aid were related to increases in tuition at some small public and private 4-year colleges.
A Study of College Costs and Prices is a follow-up report to the 1998 Congressionally-mandated study Straight Talk About College Costs and Prices by the National Commission on the Cost of Higher Education and is available at: http://nces.ed.gov/das/epubs/2002157/
Separately, the National Association of College & University Business Officers found that the cost of an undergraduate education is greater than the price of tuition and related fees nearly universally across institutions. The difference is made up by state, local and federal support, drawdowns on endowments, private contributions, other activities, etc. (see Explaining College Costs: NACUBO's Methodology for Identifying the Costs of Delivering Undergraduate Education: http://www.nacubo.org/public_policy/cost_of_college/)
College Board Reports Sharp Tuition Increases for 2001-2002
Trends in College Pricing 2001, the College Board's annual survey of more than 3,000 schools reported that college tuition and fees in 2001-2002 had increased an average of between 5.5 and 7.7 percent at four-year institutions, and between 5.5 and 5.8 percent at two-year institutions. Undergraduates at American colleges are paying, on average, from $96 to $890 more than last year for tuition and fees this year, depending on the type of institution. Students also faced charges of between 3.9 and 6.6 percent more for room and board.
- At four-year private institutions, students are paying $890 more ($17,123 vs. $16,233, a 5.5 % increase);
- at four-year public institutions, students are paying $267 more ($3,754 vs. $3,487, a 7.7 % increase);
- at two-year private institutions, students are paying $414 more ($7,953 vs. $7,539, a 5.5 % increase); and
- at two-year public institutions, students are paying $96 more ($1,738 vs. $1,642, a 5.8 % increase).
Students who attend out-of-state or out-of-district colleges often face additional charges that increase their expenses for tuition and fees beyond the listed averages. This year, tuition and fee charges for out-of-state or out-of-district students at public institutions average $3,319 at two-year colleges, and $5,764 at public four-year colleges.
Trends in College Pricing 2001 is available from: http://www.collegeboard.com/press/cost01/html/011023.htmlSearchable databases of tuition and fees for the more than 3,000 colleges and universities included in the College Board survey are available at: http://chronicle.com/stats/tuition/
The Chronicle of Higher Education's coverage of the report, which points the finger at state budget cuts for the sharp rise in public tuition rates, is available for free at: http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i10/10a05201.htm
NACUBO: Endowment Losses Fuel Further Pressure on College Tuitions
At -3.6 percent, college endowments posted their biggest losses since 1984 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 2001, according to the annual endowment survey conducted by the National Association of College & University Business Officers (NACUBO). Fortunately, the decline in investment revenues follows a 13 percent return for FY2000.
Earnings from endowments investment pools are essential to higher education institutions because they provide funds for such expenses as financial aid, faculty salaries, and other operating costs. As a general rule, higher education institutions spend approximately 4.5 percent of the market value of their endowments each year. As the recession deepened last year, alumni & corporate contributions also declined for many schools.
The full Endowment Survey will be available for purchase later this month from NACUBO. The preliminary press release is available at: http://www.nacubo.org/
Higher Ed Facing Further Budget Cuts in Many States
With the latest National Conference of State Legislatures survey revealing 45 states are dealing with falling revenue projections and 37 already report budget gaps in next year's revenue forecasts (see http://www.ssti.org/Digest/2002/021502.htm), the number of states proposing or considering cuts to higher education for FY 2003 continues to grow.
Nearly half of the states — Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin — already have cut current year appropriations to universities and colleges or recommended cuts for next year.
To maintain or create momentum in academic research and tech-based economic development, a few governors are proposing the state borrow money (through bond issuance) to pay for selected non-capital programs like Kentucky's Bucks for Brains initiative, which historically has been financed through $230 million in surplus revenues, and Ohio's proposed $500 million bond for endowed chairs, faculty recruitment and commercialization efforts.
Study Uncovers Trend Toward More Part-time Faculty
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99), the third in a series, presents the results of a 1998 survey conducted of institutions' policies and practices affecting faculty. Among the findings -- a large proportion, about two-fifths, of all faculty worked part time. During the five year period preceding the study, 40 percent of all institutions (all public and private not-for-profit Title IV participating, degree-granting institutions in the 50 states and the District of Columbia) took actions to reduce the size of the full-time faculty. Twenty-two percent of them did so by simply replacing full-time faculty with part-time faculty. Other measures included "increasing the faculty course load, increasing class size, reducing program offerings, and substituting on-campus courses taught by full-time faculty with remote site (e.g. video, audio, internet) courses."
Different types of institutions relied on those reduction measures to varying degrees to effect the change. Overall, public research institutions were much more likely than private research institutions to employ each of these methods to reduce full-time faculty numbers. However, many (44 percent) private liberal arts institutions enacted at least one policy aimed at reducing the full-time faculty.
Download the full report from the National Center for Education Statistics web site: http://nces.ed.gov/
Administration Requests Less for Most EPSCoR Programs
With the release of the President's FY 2003 budget request, five of seven federal programs designed to help state universities in 21 states were slated for cuts or total elimination. Collectively known as the EPSCoR programs, short for Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research, the emphasis began in 1979, with an innovative National Science Foundation (NSF) program intended to improve the research competitiveness of those states that have received lesser amounts of federal R&D funding.
Designed around the premise that aiding researchers and institutions in securing federal R&D funding will develop a state's research infrastructure and advance economic growth locally and nationally, EPSCoR investments have become an integral element of many states' strategies to develop tech-based economies.
NSF's EPSCoR is active in 21 states — Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Vermont, West Virginia, Wyoming, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Since 1979, EPSCoR and EPSCoR-like programs have been created in the Department of Agriculture (Ag), Department of Defense, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIH EPSCoR equivalent is known as the Institutional Development Award (IDeA) program
In the President's request the EPSCoR programs collectively would experience a cut of nearly $6 million among the seven federal agencies. When examined individually, the nature of more drastic cuts and eliminations is revealed:
- Department of Agriculture - no request for FY 2003, $12 million was available in FY 2002 (an allotment of 10 percent of the National Research Initiative grants, which totaled $120 million)
- Department of Defense - $9.8 million requested for FY 2003, $15.9 million appropriated in FY 2002
- Department of Energy - $7.685 million requested for FY 2003, $7.679 million appropriated in FY 2002
- Environmental Protection Agency - no request for FY 2003, $2.5 million appropriated in FY 2002
- NASA - $4.6 million requested for FY 2003, $10 million appropriated in FY 2002
- National Institutes of Health IDeA - $185 million requested for FY 2003, $160 million appropriated in FY 2002
- National Science Foundation - $75 million requested for FY 2003 (with $148 million in co-funding), $80 million (with $143 million in co-funding) appropriated in FY 2002
At NSF, EPSCoR is used to boost R&D competitiveness through the investment of fiscal and human resources by both NSF and participating states and other initiatives, including Research Infrastructure Improvement Grants, or 36-month grants of up to $9 million to support infrastructure improvements in select science and technology (S&T) areas.
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Useful Stats: 2001 Digest of Educational Statistics Released
On March 1, the National Center for Educational Statistics released the 597-page Digest of Educational Statistics, 2001. Included in the tome are several hundred tables covering demographic data for all levels of education. Highlights of relevance to this special Higher Education issue of the SSTI Weekly Digest include:
- For the 2000-01 academic year, the average annual cost for undergraduate tuition, room and board were estimated to be $7,621 at public colleges and $21,423 at private colleges. After adjustment for inflation, prices at public colleges rose 23 percent between 1990-91 and 2000-01. For private schools, prices increased 27 percent.
- Research expenditures rose 26 percent per student at public universities during the decade and 36 percent per student at other public four-year institutions.
- States seeing increases of 20 percent or more in total enrollment at degree-granting institutions between 1990 and 1999 include: Arizona, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Utah. States experiencing decreases or no change during the same period are: Alaska, Connecticut, the District of Columbia, Michigan, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Wyoming. (Table 191).
- As a true measure of "brain drain," the states showing negative net migration of students to attend four-year degree granting institutions as freshmen in 1998 are: New Jersey, Illinois, Texas, Maryland, Connecticut, California, Minnesota, New York, Washington, Maine, Hawaii, Alaska, New Mexico, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Wisconsin, Oregon, Montana, Michigan, and South Dakota. The range is -18, 944 for New Jersey to only -28 for South Dakota. (Table 206).
The full report and individual chapters are available for download at:
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2002130
University Tech Parks in the News
Illinois
The March 7 Chicago Tribune reported that the new 840-acre DuPage County Technology Park has hired its first executive director. Jack Tenison, deputy administrator for county government in Dupage, will start the position April 1 and will work to link development of the property with the nearby Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Argonne National Lab, the area universities, and the adjacent airport. The Trib says a $34 million state grant will pay for planning and preliminary construction of the park.
Indiana
The Purdue Research Foundation is planning to build a technology center with the hopes of attracting high-tech companies. The Northwest Indiana Technology Center will be built on 400 acres the university purchased in 1998 and will serve as an incubator, providing office space, phone systems and computer equipment. In addition, the center will be modeled after the 600-acre Purdue Research Park located near the university's West Lafayette campus.
Mississippi
Mississippi State University's Engineering Research Center continues to graduate engineers and scientists and provide opportunities for entrepreneurs. The 220-acre research and technology center opened in 1990 with grants from the Department of Defense and the National Science Foundation; in 1999, the center gave way to a branch at Stennis Space Center in Hancock County. SemiSouth, a producer of computer chips made of silicon carbide, was born last year from the center and soon expects to have its own building.
North Carolina
Duke Energy announced it will invest $10 million in the Charlotte Institute of Technology Innovation as part of UNC Charlotte's $100 million fundraising campaign. The investment is the largest made by the The Duke Energy Foundation and, combined with the company's other commitments, represents the largest ever received by UNC Charlotte. The money will used to establish a fund to support the initiatives of the Charlotte Institute.
Pennsylvania
Gov. Mark Schweiker has distributed $13.6 million to help build a 100,000-square-foot science and technology center at East Stroudsburg University. With research labs, classrooms, a planetarium, a rooftop observatory and weather station, a 200-seat lecture hall and other facilities, the estimated $26 million center will seek to provide companies high-tech training and promote economic development. New degree programs in such fields as biotechnology and chemical biotechnology will be offered at the center.
Washington
The concept of the University of Washington developing a 100-acre research park on property it owns in Snohomish County, north of Seattle, was the focus of a two-day workshop this week. The session included tours of two other potential sites, discussion of financing options and case studies of successful research parks from around the country.
West Virginia
An amended bill passed unanimously by the West Virginia Senate on Wednesday would allow a research park to be developed near West Virginia University's medical center campus in Morgantown. Providing that WVU may exchange property with Monongalia General Hospital, the bill would allow the transfer of property from any West Virginia colleges and universities to private corporations for development of research parks. Land would revert back to the state if not used for the intended purposes of tech-based economic development.
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Three Useful Stats Revisited
In our occasional Useful Stats series in the SSTI Weekly Digest over the past few months, SSTI published online tables for three statistical measures that can be used as indicators of a state's relative position or, when collected over time, progress toward specific tech-based economic development goals involving academic performance or research. Links to the full reports from which the statistics are derived are provided on each table's web page.
Educational Attainment Rankings by State
Last August, the U.S. Census Bureau released the Census 2000 Supplementary Survey Data (C2SS), compiled from 700,000 test households prior to the full census. Using the 1991 and 2000 educational attainment data from the Census Bureau, SSTI has prepared a table revealing each state's relative rank for the percentage of its population over 25 years of age that had obtained at least a Bachelor's Degree in 1991and 2000. The table also presents rankings for the percentage change between the two figures for each state. The table is available at: http://www.ssti.org/Digest/2001/081701.htmScience & Engineering Doctorate Awards by State
The National Science Foundation Division of Science Resource Statistics has e-published early release tables for the Science & Engineering Doctorate Awards: 2000 report. The data show trends in science and engineering (S&E) doctorate awards by S&E field and recipient characteristics, institutions awarding doctorates, and postgraduation plans of recipients. SSTI has prepared a table summarizing the 2000 data, standardizing S&E doctorates per 100,000 residents in each state, and ranking the results by state. The table is available at: http://www.ssti.org/Digest/Tables/110901t.htmAcademic R&D Expenditures by State
Annual R&D expenditures at America's academic institutions topped $30 billion for the first time, according to the early release tables from the National Science Foundation's Survey of Research and Development Expenditures at Universities and Colleges, Fiscal Year 2000. The final results of the latest annual survey reveals a nine percent increase over 1999 expenditures.
Despite growing by more than $1.4 billion during 2000, the federal government's share of total support for academic R&D, at 58.19 percent, fell to its lowest percentage since 1959. State and local government share dropped to 7.33 percent, the lowest level since the survey began in 1953. Institutional funds, on the other hand, accounted for 19.71 percent of academic R&D expenditures in 2000, the highest level ever for this source of funding.
Because of the important role academic R&D can play in encouraging state and local tech-based economic development, SSTI has prepared two tables for Digest readers standardizing the data for comparison across states. The first, available at: http://www.ssti.org/Digest/Tables/010402t.htm presents figures and rankings for total and per capita academic R&D expenditures by state for 1993 and 2000. The table also shows the percentage change and rankings for the eight-year period.
As many state and local tech-based ED programs strive to increase and strengthen university-industrial research partnerships, SSTI's second table examines only those academic R&D expenditures for 1993 and 2000 that were financed from industrial sources. The table is available at: http://www.ssti.org/Digest/Tables/010402t2.htm
Additional Reports and Resources
Over the past few years, the SSTI Weekly Digest has covered several reports concerning universities, their economic impact and research and development issues. Some of these are highlighted below. In addition, on SSTI's Resources web page are links to several academic associations and organizations that follow the topics discussed in this special issue more closely.
Using Research and Development to Grow State Economies by Dan Berglund and Marianne Clarke
The Economic Returns to Basic Research and the Benefits of University-Industry Relationships: A Literature Review and Update of Findings by Alister Scott, et al.
Shaping the Future - The Economic Impact of Public Universities by the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges
Assessing the Effectiveness of Technology Transfer Offices at U.S. Research Universities by Everett M Rogers, Jing Yin and Joern Hoffman:
Comparative Localization of Academic and Industrial Spillovers by John Adams
High Technology Employment, Wages and University R&D Spillovers: Evidence from US Cities by Zoltan Acs, et alia
Technology Transfer From the University of Minnesota: Estimating the Economic Impact by Vernon Ruttan
Outcomes and Impacts of the State/Industry-University Cooperative Research Centers Program by David Roessner
University-Industry Partnerships and Intellectual Property by Bronwyn Hall
Industry-University Cooperative Research Centers by James Adams
How Do University Inventions Get into Practice? by Jeannette Colyvas et alia
American Universities and Technical Advance in Industry by Nathan Rosenberg and Richard R. Nelson
The Effects of the Bayh-Dole Act on U.S. University Research and Technology Transfer by David Mowery, et aliaIntellectual Property: When is it the best incentive system? by Nancy Gallini and Suzanne Scotchmer
Universities as Research Partners by Bronwyn H. Hall, Albert N. Link and John T. Scott
Barriers Inhibiting Industry from Partnering with Universities: Evidence from the Advanced Technology Program by Bronwyn H. Hall, Albert N. Link and John T. Scott
Does Proximity Matter for Knowledge Transfer from Public Institutes and Universities to Firms? by Anthony Arundel and Aldo GeunaUniversity Research Evaluation and Funding: An International Comparison by Aldo Geuna and Ben R. Martin
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